Influences Of Feminism On Political Science

Influences Of Feminism On Political Science This essay will evaluate the influences of feminism on political science. Feminists have given us a different outlook on what we define as politics. In simple terms politics is about power. However the ways and spheres with in which this power is exercised and the actors who have authority to use it can be debated. By challenging conventional ideas of what is political, feminists have broadened the definition of politics. The question above will be answered in this essay by firstly looking at the historical roots of feminism. I will then move on to describe the term feminism and how this movement has developed over the years. In the second half of the essay I will look at how feminists view the state. Finally I will carry out a case study to reinforce the contributions made by feminism to the field of political analysis. Although feminist aspirations have been expressed in societies dating back to china, they were not underpinned by a political theory until the publication of Mary Wollstonecrafts a vindication of the rights of women (Heywood, 2002:61). In terms of Europe, the first set of women who highlighted issues regarding their sex did this for religion and within religious frameworks (Walters, 2005:6). Following this in the early 19th century campaigns were organized for improving education, increasing opportunities to work outside home, legal rights for married women and the concept of giving women the right to vote was initiated (Walters, 2005: 41). As a result of the demand for voting rights for women, the suffragettes movement came into being. In 1918, women over the age of 30 were given the vote; and in March 1928, under a conservative government, they finally won it on equal terms with men (Walters, 2005: 85). In simple terms feminism can be defined as an ideology committed to promoting the social role of women and, in most cases, dedicated to the goal of gender equality (Heywood, 2002: 423). Firstly the idea that there is gender and inequality in terms of sex, secondly the fact that this patriarchal system should not be allowed to dominate forms the base of feminism (Heywood, 2002: 61). Feminism essentially can be divided into three sub sections. First wave, second wave and third wave. It can be observed that with time feminism has become more radical as demands have increased. The first wave feminism, which is also known as liberal feminism, was initiated by the suffragettes movement. Mary Wollstonecraft laid the foundations for first wave liberal feminism with the help of her book a vindication of the rights of women (Pettiford, 2005: 159). In A vindication of rights of women, she used liberal arguments to make the case for equal rights and opportunities for women (Pettiford, 2005: 159) . Liberal feminism focuses on the reasons behind women being classified secondary to men. They do not question the epistemological assumptions for these differences and mainly focus on the given content. Liberal feminist believe that by empowering women legally they can raise their status in society. These include a number of issues for example the problems faced by refugee women and sex trafficking (Smith, 2007: 188). The second and third wave feminism is critical of liberal feminism. Second wave feminism came about after the Second World War in a number of countries. By 1947 the UN had established a commission that served the purpose of looking at the status of women in society. In 1949 by issuing the declaration of human rights, the UN acknowledged that both men and women have equal rights in terms of marriage and divorce (Walters, 2005: 97). With the help of the womens liberation movement, the demands of more radical feminists were presented to the world. The aim was to stretch the concept of politics and stop it from being only restricted to its arena definition. The famous slogan the personal is political came around (Heywood, 2002: 12). Politics was not only about the state or government now; it was seen as an everyday experience. This means that it is present in relationships between families, work colleagues and almost any association one individual might have with another. Radical feminists demand a sexual revolution through which they argue we can remove the patriarchal state that currently exists (Heywood, 2002:12). The third wave of feminism raises many fundamental questions about their discipline. These include looking at the methodologies that are used in political science. By challenging the state as being the only arena for power and politics, feminists have produced a range of arguments through which politics can be defined or analyzed. To begin with by uncovering the idea of patriarchal state, the feminist have made a huge contribution to make us view how are legal and state institutes are controlled by men and also how conventionally politics has been viewed as male stream (Hay, 2002: 71). Feminist perspectives can be divided into five broad categories: The neutral state, patriarchal state, capitalist state, women-friendly welfare state and finally the post structural state. Liberal feminist have made contributions to the idea of a neutral state. They influenced policy making. Public debates surrounding equal pay, quotas and citizenships are now being seen under the light of equality and universality. These will enable women to step into institutes that have a male majority. Liberal feminists have armed us with a numerous of essential ideas regarding justice that are still being used in feminist debates (Marsh, 2006: 119-120). Radical feminist have given us ideas that help in unmasking the patriarchal nature of the state. This in turn has helped in uncovering how the state has a part to play for gender inequalities within various settings (Marsh, 2006: 122). Marxist and socialist feminist contribution was to conceptualize the state as a social relation and to stress the importance of understanding capitalist relations when theorizing the state (Marsh, 2006: 123). It emphasised the idea of the work women do for their family without demanding a wage and established a fresh outlook to liberal and radical feminist perspectives on the state (Marsh, 2006: 123). The women-friendly welfare state feminist approach contributed to feminist debates on the state by highlighting the role of context in feminist state theory. It provided tools for analysing by challenge questioning widely accepted theories and judgments about womens link to the welfare state which was built on Anglo-American theory and research. Furthermore by looking at gender and state in terms of theory it gave us a softer approach of analysis to the values of womens agency (Marsh, 2006: 124-125). Post structural approaches have contributed significantly to feminist debates about the state by highlighting the differentiated nature of the state and by questioning the unity of state responses (Marsh, 2006: 125). The classical definition of politics provided to us by the author Robert Dahl which is that power exists when A is able to make B do something that B wouldnt normally have chosen to do (Heywood, 2002: 11). This makes power a key concept of political science. If we then look at feminism, it is not hard to deduce from the definitions of the movement provided in the first part of this essay that feminists do indeed focus and criticise the use of power. It can be argued that ideas such as rational choice theory and feminism have produced a whole new language with a range of lexis for the analysis of political science. The question of what is politics? and whether or not it is a science or not can be looked in a whole new light. The key three terms that have been developed for this debate are ontology, epistemology and methodology. Ontology refers to what is out there in the world to know. Epistemology helps us to trace how we know about these ontological issues that exist. Finally methodology is a term used to describe the means employed to search for ontology and epistemology. Feminism has been described as going through three epistemological phases: rationalist (positivist), anti rationalist and post rationalist (interpretive). By rejecting conventional borders of political science and bringing up the issue of public/private dichotomy, feminists have indeed provided essential tools to dissect and analyse political issues and disci pline (Stoker, 2002: 113-115). In order to summarize and emphasise the contribution of feminist theory I will now analyse a case study. Currently the world is plagued by wars in countries like Iraq and Afghanistan. Along with this the current recession has left many unemployed and it is safe to say the world is going through a rather dark time. Due to word restriction I have decided to only look at the war on Iraq and analyze it from a feminist point of view. The key issue I will be looking at is how the meaning of protection and security has taken a new dimension when we analyze the war on Iraq from a feminist perspective. To begin with decision to enter Iraq was made by representatives of a patriarchal structure which included ideas such as revenge, strength and bravery. These ideas would contradict feminine ideas like compromise. War on Iraq followed after September 11 attacks on the twin towers in New York. It also resulted because the Bush administration claimed that Saddams regime were in possession of weapons of mass destruction. However these weapons were never found and civilians as well as military personnel are dying on a regular basis in these parts of the world. If we then look at this in the broader sense, the soldiers who die in these wars leave behind families. This increases the responsibility on women as they have to usually become the breadwinners of the family (Owens, 2008: 270). This not only challenges the myth of pr otection but also allows us to see how feminists historically contributed to allow women to become responsible for the welfare for their families. For example if we were to accept the idea of women being confide to households, who would provide basics necessities of life to these families. Along with this if a women has taken up a role of the head of the house then why should she not be allowed to make decisions on higher institutional levels. Feminists define security broadly and encompass ideas such as violence, physical, economic and ecological security (Owen, 2008: 270). The national security of states, defined in masculine terms lays emphasis on military strength, can overlook the physical and economic security of individuals (Owen, 2008: 270). This essay has reflected on the various influences that feminism has had on political science. By questioning the relationship between public/private, feminists have contributed in revealing the complexities of the political world. The case study I used above can show us how if we were to filter conflicts from a feminist perspective, we can take account of humanitarian crises that lie ahead. Finally by showing that power is a universal and everyday practice, feminism has allowed us to see that politics indeed exists in our society and in political institutes such as the state.

Utilitarianism or God, do we have to choose? Essay -- essays research

Utilitarianism or God, do we have to choose? During many years that question is being formulated and many scholars had a very difficult time to decide if it was possible to follow God’s will and the principle of utility maximization. The principle of utility maximization was a theory created by John Stuart Mill and presented in his book Utilitarianism (1863). Societies throughout the years have argued that those theories are hard to combine, since Utilitarianism seeks for self-development and God’s teachings seek for community growth. This paper will start with a context on actuality of society, then it will try to clarify what is the Bible view of Utilitarianism by explaining the principle of Utilitarianism, what society has to change to avoid to forget God’s principles and only base their behavior on Mill’s theory, how society should accept both theories and combine them into one in order to create a better society. An important part of this discussion is based on understanding what is happening with society nowadays. Societies all around the world are becoming more and more individualists, what is causing problems that can affect the whole world, problems such as terrorists attacks, war or even in a lower but maybe more important scale hunger. This is basically happening because every single member of every society is only looking after themselves instead of the group, they are only trying to progress individually, but most of these individuals forget that to really achieve the top you need help, and that help comes from other individuals. The following part of the paper will try to clarify the biblical view of Mill’s theory, the Utilitarianism. Utilitarianism has always been seen as an opposite theory from God’s teachings. That is not absolutely correct. Jesus gave us the major example of understanding Mill’s principle by dying on the cross. Of course it is simple to say that Jesus died for every human being and that is a proof of community spirit instead of individualism, however Jesus showed that He was following actually not His will but God’s will, what is showed on the passage before Jesus is captured by the roman soldiers: â€Å"O my Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from me: nevertheless not as I will, but as thou wilt† (Matthew 26:39). What Jesus was showing is that every single human has the principle of utilitarianism inside themselve... ...s Consulted †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rose, John T., â€Å"Utility Versus Self-Sacrificing Love† Christian Scholar’s Review Fall 2004 †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Leightner, Jonathan, â€Å"‘Not my Will†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢:Further Thoughts on Utility Versus Self-Sacrificing Love† Christian Scholar’s Review Fall 2004 †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  NRSV Bible †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"FAO unveils global anti-hunger program† http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/news/2002/5500-en.html †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mill, John Stuart, Utilitarianism, Hackett Publishing Company Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana, 1979, Original Publication, 1861 †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Harcourt, Edward, â€Å"Mill’s ‘Sanctions’, Internalization and the Self† European Journal of Philosophy; Oct98, Vol. 6 Issue 3, p318, 17p †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kant Immanuel, Grounding For The Metaphysics Of Morals, Third Edition, Hackett Publishing Company Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana, 1993, Original Publication, 1785 †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Smart, and Bernard Williams. Utilitarianism: For and Against. Trowbridge: Redwood Burn, 1973 †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lewis, C.S., â€Å"Mere Christianity† Harper Collins Edition 2001

Motorcycle and Honda

TUTORIAL PREPARATION INTERNATIONAL MARKETING (MKT 343) 1. How can companies learn from Honda’s investment in the Indian market? Honda had showed a great way to invest in the Indian market as in they choose to generate a new model in vehicle aspect. During that time, Honda arrived at the right time because the country is under low vehicle-penetration rate and the country expects vehicle production will increase by 9% annually to 2011. Before Honda starts its business over the country, they choose Hero as their business partner because Honda realised the potential by finding synergies between the two firms which is Honda and Hero.Both combine as a partnership and invented a motorcycle. Other than that, Honda utilise the experience and market knowledge to understand the country needs and produce according to their demand because selling motorcycle in India is extremely profitable business. After succeed two-wheeler motor vehicle manufacturer in the world, Honda continue to take o pportunity to establish another Honda giant, Honda Siel Cars India Ltd (HSCL). Then they enrich Indian users lifestyle by forming Honda R&D (India) (HRID) Pty Ltd. Thus, Honda had adapted the country’s lifestyle which helps them to achieve the demand of people in India. . Honda and Hero – what made them such a great partnership? Honda had chosen Hero which creates a great partnership between them. Hero was built in the network of independent bicycle dealers which had already established one of India’s leading bicycle brands meanwhile Honda had been waiting for years to sell motorcycles I India because the country’s motorcycle business is extremely profitable. Then Honda realised the potential between this two firm where they had shared a similar operating disciplines and the potential of converting Hero’s large network of bicycle dealers to motorcycle dealers.Hero Honda successful show as the largest two-wheeler motor vehicle manufacturer in the wo rld and in India its annual sales volume is over three million motorcycles. 3. Imagine yourself as CEO of Honda in the Asia Pacific region. Would you choose India or China to establish a new manufacturing plant for producing cars and two-wheelers? I would choose India to establish a new manufacturing plant for producing cars and two-wheelers. The reason I choose India is because of few factors.First, the production cost in India is low compare to production cost in China because India is not a large country and less manufacturer around but China got higher potential to increase their production. Next, there is less competitors in India during the year 1980s due to the reason where many had failed before to enter a new market in that country. The reason why I don’t choose China is because the citizens in China are united. They would rather support local product more than foreign product because the government wanted to protect their country’s domestic.In the 1980s, fore ign automakers were allow to form joint ventures in China but the foreign ownership limited to 50% only meanwhile another 50% must own by Chinese. Other than that, China government wanted to develop a car industry quickly thus they learn from the foreign companies how to make cars while maintaining control of the car industry. In this point, it shows clearly that China wants most of the ownership by themselves and foreigner instead of earning more profit; their techniques have to be taught to others which will cause their own production to decrease after years.

Analysis of Women Role´s in Louisa May Alcott´s Little Women

Throughout most of the 19th century, feminine behavior was expected from every respectable woman. However Lousia May Alcott’s novel â€Å"Little Women† displays interesting qualities from her characters that represent aberrance and independence; Alcott challenged conventional beliefs about how women should behave in the 1800s. Similar to Alcott herself, the main character was determined to become a writer â€Å"despite the fact that popular portrayals of working women during the era often pictured them as socially deviant† and was considered unfit to become a motherly figure (Alcott, Louisa May). She wrote Little Women as a â€Å"‘moral paper for children,’† allowing any young reader to relate to at least one of the March Girls: Meg, Jo, Beth, or Amy (In the Garret). In her innovative novel Little Women, Alcott expresses her controversial views concerning traditional roles of women through the temperamental protagonist, Jo, who represents inde pendence and morality for girls in the late 1800s. Traditional roles of women in America during the 1860s were significantly different than they are today. Around the Civil War era, most women were expected to be homemakers above anything else. They spent much of their days cooking, sewing, or cleaning, and if they failed to create a cheerful, cozy home environment, they were looked down upon because it was considered unacceptable according to society’s standards. ( Literature and Its Times.†) In addition to housework, mothers encouraged theirShow MoreRelatedLittle Women By Louisa Alcott1260 Words   |  6 PagesLittle Women by Louisa Alcott Little Women can be viewed as a classic book or girl’s book. It was written after the Civil War after the author received endless demand from the young female readers. Initially they were published as two books where Chapters 1 to 23 where issues back in 1868 under Little Women title, however, after becoming a highly sensational success, Chapters 24 to 47 were published in 1869 under the title Good Wives Louisa (1869). Louisa May Alcott’s personal life is demonstratedRead MoreLittle Women During The Civil War Essay1962 Words   |  8 PagesLittle Women Little Women was set approximately between 1861 and 1876, during and after the Civil War. This time period is especially significant as many of the men of the household were off fighting, leaving the women behind to support and raise families. The role of the women in the 19th century was very established; there was clear definition as to what was acceptable behaviour for a woman. Women were considered physically weaker yet morally superior to men, this was interpreted as that they wereRead MoreLiterary Criticism : The Free Encyclopedia 7351 Words   |  30 Pagesencyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search In literary criticism, a Bildungsroman (German pronunciation: [ˈbÉ ªldÊŠÅ‹s.Ê oËÅ'maË n]; German: novel of formation, education, culture),[a] novel of formation, novel of education,[2] or coming-of-age story (though it may also be known as a subset of the coming-of-age story) is a literary genre that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth to adulthood (coming of age),[3] in which character change is extremely important.[4][5] Contents